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Give microinstructions for the following register reference instructions of the basic computer: (i) CMA (ii) SPA In a basic computer, register reference instructions  are those that directly operate on registers without memory access. These are executed when the control unit  detects an instruction with I = 0 and D7 = 1 (indicating a register reference operation in the instruction decoder). ADVERTISEMENT Each microinstruction specifies control signals that direct the data flow within the processor. (i) CMA (Complement Accumulator) The CMA (Complement Accumulator)  instruction takes the current value in the Accumulator (AC)  and replaces it with its bitwise complement . Microinstructions for CMA: AC ← AC' (Complement each bit of AC) SC ← 0 (Reset sequence counter to fetch next instruction) ADVERTISEMENT (ii) SPA (Skip if AC is Positive) The SPA (Skip if AC is Positive)  instruction checks the sign bit (leftmost bit) of the Accumulator (AC) . If the sign bit is 0 (indicating a positive value or zero), it increments the Program Counter (PC) to skip the next instruction. Microinstructions for SPA: If (AC(15) = 0) then PC ← PC + 1 (Check sign bit and increment PC if positive) SC ← 0 (Reset sequence counter) These microinstructions define the control logic needed to execute the given instructions in a basic computer architecture . 🚀

Perform the following conversions to the indicated bases: (973) 10 = (?) 5 (F23A) 16 = (?) 8 (10110.11) 2 = (?) 10 Let's perform the given conversions step by step. 1. Convert (973)₁₀ to Base 5 We repeatedly divide 973 by 5 and record the remainders. 973÷5=194 remainder 3 194 ÷ 5 = 38 remainder 4 38 ÷ 5 = 7 remainder 3 7 ÷ 5 = 1 remainder 2 1 ÷ 5 = 0 remainder 1 Reading the remainders from bottom to top, (973)₁₀ = (12343)₅ . ADVERTISEMENT 2. Convert (F23A)₁₆ to Base 8 First, convert from hexadecimal (base 16) to binary. F=1111, 2=0010, 3=0011, A=1010 So, (F23A)₁₆  in binary: F23A=1111 0010 0011 1010 Now, group into triplets from right to left for conversion to octal: 1 111 001 000 111 010 Converting each triplet to octal: 1=1,111=7,001=1,000=0,111=7,010=2 So, (F23A)₁₆ = (171072)₈ . ADVERTISEMENT 3. Convert (10110.11)₂ to Base 10 We expand the binary number using powers of 2. Thus, (10110.11)₂ = (22.75)₁₀ . Final Answers: (973)₁₀ = (12343)₅ (F23A)₁₆ = (171072)₈ (10110.11)₂ = (22.75)₁₀

Faculty of Management Studies (FMS), Delhi, is one of India’s premier business schools, renowned for its academic excellence, industry-oriented curriculum, and exceptional return on investment. Established in 1954 under the University of Delhi, FMS offers flagship MBA, Executive MBA, and doctoral programs. Known as the "Red Building of Dreams," it boasts a legacy of producing top corporate leaders and entrepreneurs. With a rigorous selection process, a dynamic peer group, and strong corporate connections, FMS provides a transformative learning experience that blends theoretical knowledge with real-world applications. ADVERTISEMENT Candidate Profile:Background:  General Engineering Male (GEM) Academics:  10th – 89.8% | 12th – 84.8% | Graduation – 69.1% CAT Percentile:  99.93 Panel Composition:  3 Members – 2 Female (P1, P2), 1 Male (P3) Interview Questions & Responses P2:  Naman, tell us something about yourself. (This interview was after a month-long gap since my last one, so I was slightly unprepared for my usual answer. I mentioned my graduation and work experience but forgot to cover my hobbies.) P2:  Do you know of any recent M&A (Mergers and Acquisitions) in the pharma industry? Not very recent, but Ranbaxy was acquired by Sun Pharmaceuticals. P2:  Why do you think M&As take place? To capture market share and reduce competition. I explained with an example of Flipkart acquiring eBay India (which had happened just a day or two before the interview). P2:  Okay, now P1 will give you your extempore topic. (I had butterflies in my stomach, hoping the topic wouldn't be too difficult.) Extempore P1:  You have to speak on the topic "Namaste"  for a minute. (I was relieved to get a simple topic!) Spoke about how "Namaste" is very closely associated with me since it is the meaning of my name. Explained that it is the first word many foreigners learn when they come to India. Mentioned that it is used to greet people and show respect, and that it is synonymous with "hello." Concluded with "That’s all I can think of." P3:  (First time speaking, with humor) "Kisi ko bhagana ho toh bhi bolo Namaste."(Everyone grinned.) P1:  Tell me three women entrepreneurs. I could only name one – Kiran Mazumdar Shaw. P1:  Which organization does she lead? Biocon. P1:  Tell me some industry experts instead. Indra Nooyi (PepsiCo) and Arundhati Bhattacharya (SBI). P1:  How long have they been working in their respective organizations? I don’t know, ma’am. P3:  Why MBA? Talked about my career plan and family business. P3:  What is the turnover of your family business? Told. P3:  How do you judge a company’s performance? Talked about financial statements, mainly the income statement and balance sheet, and what each of them represents. P3:  Do you know any financial ratios? Initially said I didn’t have much finance knowledge, but then suddenly remembered and blurted out: "PE Ratio, sir. The Price-to-Earnings ratio."   (Sigh of relief!) P3:  IIM Calcutta results were announced yesterday. Did you convert? Didn’t convert, sir. P3:  Why? Didn’t answer a couple of questions well, and CAT score weightage is lower there. P3:  But you’ll get the benefit of weightage here. Yes, sir! Closing Remarks Verdict:   Direct Convert! 🎉

Faculty of Management Studies (FMS), Delhi, is one of India’s premier business schools, renowned for its academic excellence, industry-oriented curriculum, and exceptional return on investment. Established in 1954 under the University of Delhi, FMS offers flagship MBA, Executive MBA, and doctoral programs. Known as the "Red Building of Dreams," it boasts a legacy of producing top corporate leaders and entrepreneurs. With a rigorous selection process, a dynamic peer group, and strong corporate connections, FMS provides a transformative learning experience that blends theoretical knowledge with real-world applications. ADVERTISEMENT Candidate Profile: Background:  General Engineering Male Work Experience:  20 months Academics:  10th – 10 CGPA | 12th – 98.5% | Graduation – 8.3 CGPA CAT Percentile:  99.76 Date:  23rd April 2021 Mode:  Online Interview Panel:  1 Male Professor (M), 1 Female Professor (F) M:  Good morning, Karthik. Good morning, sir. M:  Start with where you did your graduation, where you are working, why MBA, and why FMS. All in one go, sir? M:  Yes, don't you know we have marks for your SOP? Yes, sir. I will start. (Gave a brief answer covering all the questions.) F:  Okay, Karthik, let's move on to the extempore. Your topic is "Build to Last."(Started writing something on paper.) F:  You are not allowed to write anything down. Look at the camera, think for 20 seconds, and speak for a minute. Okay, ma’am. (Spoke about startups and infrastructure. Explained why 90% of startups fail, issues like lack of expertise, misallocation of capital, and rapid expansion. Suggested that gaining experience before launching a business can help build companies that last. Started talking about infrastructure...) F:  Your time is up. Did you read the book Build to Last ? No, ma’am. M:  When did you start working? July 2019, sir. M:  What are the revenue streams for Adobe? There are three revenue streams: Document Cloud, Creative Cloud, and Experience Cloud. M:  How does Adobe compete with free PDF tools available in the market? Adobe offers a suite of tools rather than just one or two free features. Free sites often require credit card details after a few uses, making the process cumbersome. Additionally, Adobe focuses on enterprise clients rather than retail customers. M:  Who are Adobe’s enterprise clients? Mostly government organizations moving toward paperless governance. M:  How sustainable are the revenues? Adobe shifted to a SaaS (Software as a Service) model, ensuring recurring revenues. M:  What is the third revenue stream you mentioned? Experience Cloud. It provides a comprehensive product for companies to run marketing campaigns, including analytics, targeting mechanisms, and social media campaign management. M:  Interesting. How does Adobe compete with giants like Google and Facebook? Our primary competitor is Salesforce. We have an Open Data Initiative with Microsoft and SAP to enhance our data insights, which can help us become a leader in the marketing cloud space. M:  How do you propose to increase your company’s revenue? In the Document Cloud space, Adobe is nearly a monopoly, so there’s limited room for growth. However, in the Marketing Cloud space, there’s a large market to capture. Adobe currently holds a smaller market share here, so focusing on this area would be prudent for revenue growth. F:  Nice talking to you, Karthik. We could continue, but we have pressure from the next candidates. This concludes your interview. All the best. Thank you, ma’am. FMS assigns marks for SOP, Extempore, GD (canceled this year), and the Core Interview. The Core Interview has fewer marks compared to other colleges.

Faculty of Management Studies (FMS), Delhi, is one of India’s premier business schools, renowned for its academic excellence, industry-oriented curriculum, and exceptional return on investment. Established in 1954 under the University of Delhi, FMS offers flagship MBA, Executive MBA, and doctoral programs. Known as the "Red Building of Dreams," it boasts a legacy of producing top corporate leaders and entrepreneurs. With a rigorous selection process, a dynamic peer group, and strong corporate connections, FMS provides a transformative learning experience that blends theoretical knowledge with real-world applications. ADVERTISEMENT Candidate Profile: Academics:  10th – 89.33% (ICSE) | 12th – 89.33% (ISC) | Graduation – 9 CGPA (Honors in Sociology) CAT Percentile:  99.60 Interview Format:  Conducted offline at FMS Delhi. Traveled from Kolkata to Delhi for a 10-minute interview. Panel Composition:  2 Female Panelists (F & N) Interview Questions & Responses F:  Please introduce yourself. Gave my introduction. They listened as patiently as they could, but after this, the conversation felt rushed. Extempore Topic:   "City of Chaos"  (15 seconds to think, 1 minute to speak) At first, I was baffled by the topic—it was so abstract. Took a second to calm myself and thought of Delhi. Talked about how it was my first visit, how different it was from my hometown, and how people there are always on the move. Made up a scenario from my metro ride that morning: a group of teenagers creating chaos, talking loudly, munching on food, while another group sat quietly, lost in their own thoughts, dealing with the city of chaos  in their minds. Not my best extempore, but I tried my best. Thankfully, I was cut short when my minute was up. F:  We see that you have been a basketball player for quite a while now. Is there an NBA in India? Told F:  What is India’s ranking in world basketball? Told  ( I could have made my answer more engaging by mentioning separate rankings for men and women instead of giving a generalized response. ) F:  Prachi, what have you been doing since 2021? Ma’am, I graduated in July 2021 and wanted to pursue an MBA. Hence, I decided to prepare for CAT properly. Simultaneously, I continued regular basketball practice and gave tuitions. F:  You do a lot of MUNs as well. State in bullet points the relevance of the UN in today’s world. The UN was established to save future generations from war. However, the world is currently witnessing a major war between Russia and Ukraine. While imposing economic sanctions is one deterrent, the focus should be on saving civilians caught in the crossfire. N:  Why do you say so? Hasn’t the UN done anything so far? Yes, ma’am, there have been meetings and sessions at the UNGA and UNSC. However, the existing UN structure limits its effectiveness. Russia’s permanent membership and veto power have been problematic in containing the situation. N:  What can the UN do to help the situation on the ground? (I went blank for a moment but refused to accept defeat, especially on a topic in my comfort zone. Took a risk by mentioning something I wasn’t very sure about.) Ma’am, the UN has something called the UNCT (United Nations Country Team), which is functional in all member nations. They can deploy assistance in Ukraine through neighboring countries and carry out rescue operations. Saving innocent lives should be the topmost agenda, and UNCT can facilitate that. F:  What is your ambition in life? (Went blank again. Something was definitely off with me that day.) Umm… Ma’am, I wish to contribute to an organization and become a significant decision-maker, leading to both the organization’s growth as well as mine. F:  Which organization are you talking about? (Literally crying inside at this point.) Umm… wherever I’d be working. F:  Yes, but you must have some organization in mind. BCG.  ( Could have given a more thoughtful answer, like any organization aligned with my goals, but no—I had to dig my own grave! ) F:  Who is the head of BCG in India? I am not aware, ma’am. F:  What is the business model of BCG in India? Sorry, ma’am, I am not aware. F:  These are business-related questions. How do we know that you are genuinely interested in business? Ma’am, I am very eager to learn about the business world. There are two key reasons…  ( Went on to explain my "Why MBA" answer. ) F:  Which other calls do you have? Told N:  What are your reading habits? What types of books do you read? Ma’am, I read fiction more than non-fiction. N:  Favorite book? Harry Potter! :D N:  Why do you like it? What lessons did you learn from it? The most important lesson I learned from Harry Potter is the value of perseverance. Only by standing strong during difficult times can you experience the good times. F:  What is the key message you learned from J.K. Rowling? Umm… Ma’am, J.K. Rowling never stopped writing even after completing the Harry Potter series. She continued to publish books on the magical world, many of which have been adapted into movies. So, again, the message is one of perseverance. ( I should have mentioned how she pursued what she loved despite multiple rejections and never gave up until she made it to the top. Ugh! ) Closing Remarks: N:  Okay, Prachi, we are done. Thank you! Verdict:   Converted! 🎉

Faculty of Management Studies (FMS), Delhi, is one of India’s premier business schools, renowned for its academic excellence, industry-oriented curriculum, and exceptional return on investment. Established in 1954 under the University of Delhi, FMS offers flagship MBA, Executive MBA, and doctoral programs. Known as the "Red Building of Dreams," it boasts a legacy of producing top corporate leaders and entrepreneurs. With a rigorous selection process, a dynamic peer group, and strong corporate connections, FMS provides a transformative learning experience that blends theoretical knowledge with real-world applications. ADVERTISEMENT Candidate Profile: CAT Percentile:  99.53 Academics:  10th – 95% | 12th – 89.2% | Graduation – 80.2% Background:  GEM (General Engineer Male), Fresher Panel Composition:  1 Male, 1 Female Extempore Topic:   "xyz hill"  (Couldn’t recall the name) Just after giving me the topic, the female panelist said that if I was not comfortable, I could ask for a different one—as if she already knew I would. I asked for a new topic. 2nd Topic:   "abc hill"  (She was definitely messing with me.) I asked for a third topic. 3rd Topic:   Covid and Mental Health Gave a decent extempore. Interview Questions & Responses M (Male Panelist): What kind of business leaders do you follow? Told Do you have any interest in starting your own business? In my SOP, I had written about my interest in entrepreneurship, so I was ready for this question and gave my well-prepared answer. Almost all famous entrepreneurs do not have an MBA degree. Why an MBA then? Told F (Female Panelist): Okay, let's talk about your extracurriculars. Told Which bands do you follow, and what kind of music do you do? Told M (Male Panelist): You are a mechanical engineer. What's your favorite subject? Told F (Female Panelist): Why can't we use petrol in a diesel engine and vice versa? Told Closing Remarks: The panel wished me luck. Verdict:   Rejected.

Faculty of Management Studies (FMS), Delhi, is one of India’s premier business schools, renowned for its academic excellence, industry-oriented curriculum, and exceptional return on investment. Established in 1954 under the University of Delhi, FMS offers flagship MBA, Executive MBA, and doctoral programs. Known as the "Red Building of Dreams," it boasts a legacy of producing top corporate leaders and entrepreneurs. With a rigorous selection process, a dynamic peer group, and strong corporate connections, FMS provides a transformative learning experience that blends theoretical knowledge with real-world applications. ADVERTISEMENT Candidate Profile: CAT Percentile:  98.64 (VARC: 99.63 | DILR: 91.72 | QA: 94.75) Academics:  10th – 89% | 12th – 93% | Graduation – 60% Graduation:  BSc Work Experience:  14 months Panel Composition:  1 Male, 1 Female (Duration: 23 minutes) Extempore Topic: MeToo Movement Started with the background of the movement and its emergence in India. Discussed its impact on workplace dynamics for both men and women. Concluded with how social media verdicts influence the movement. Interview Questions & Responses F (Female Panelist): Three cases where the MeToo movement gained traction? Answered. Opinion on the Priya Ramani case? Answered. Asked about a few legal terms related to the case. Answered. Your opinion on social media verdicts and their impact on the credibility of women's voices? Answered. What is Kanpur famous for? Answered. M (Male Panelist): What were your subjects during graduation? Answered. Why the switch from BSc to Journalism and now MBA? Answered. Favorite subject? Physics. Gravitational equation and gravitational constant? Answered. Using this equation, describe trade between two countries. Answered. What is Brownian motion? Relate it to the stock market. Answered. Laws of Thermodynamics? Answered. Bernoulli's Theorem? Answered. Are you comfortable with Maths? Answered. Gave a matrix and asked to find its inverse and transpose. Answered. Sum formula for an Arithmetic Progression (AP) series? Answered. Sum formula for an Infinite Geometric Progression (GP) series? Answered. Integration of sin(x) and cos(x)? Answered. What other calls do you have? Answered. How were the interview experiences at IIM B and C? Answered. F (Female Panelist): You've answered everything quite well. Why is your graduation score low? Answered. Closing Remarks: The panel wished me luck. Verdict:   Selected!  🎉

Faculty of Management Studies (FMS), Delhi, is one of India’s premier business schools, renowned for its academic excellence, industry-oriented curriculum, and exceptional return on investment. Established in 1954 under the University of Delhi, FMS offers flagship MBA, Executive MBA, and doctoral programs. Known as the "Red Building of Dreams," it boasts a legacy of producing top corporate leaders and entrepreneurs. With a rigorous selection process, a dynamic peer group, and strong corporate connections, FMS provides a transformative learning experience that blends theoretical knowledge with real-world applications. ADVERTISEMENT Candidate Profile: Background:  General Engineering Male (GEM) Academics:  10th – 93.50% | 12th – 84.00% | Graduation – 8.68 CGPA (Electronics Engineering, Aligarh Muslim University) CAT Percentile:  99.70 Work Experience:  25 months (10 months as Electronics R&D Engineer at Maruti Suzuki, 15 months as QA Engineer at TCS) Category:  General Date:  20th April 2019 | 11 AM Slot Group Discussion (GD) Topic:   Knowledge-Based Economy is Necessary for the Economic Development of India Experience: There were seven people in the group. It was a cordial discussion, not a fish market. Since the topic was straightforward, everyone contributed with relevant points. I started the GD by explaining the historical significance of knowledge-based economies. Discussed why India needs to become one in the 21st century. Later intervened with India’s advantages and challenges in achieving this goal. Overall:  A good discussion. Extempore Topic:   "What’s in a Name?" Started with Shakespeare’s famous quote. Brought in the Indian context, discussing how a person’s name is a social issue in India. Explained how names can indicate caste in India. Concluded with the recent use of the phrase in IPL Season 12’s campaign: GameBanayegaName Personal Interview (PI) Panel Composition: L1:  Female Professor M1:  Senior Male Professor M2:  Senior Male Professor M1:  Tell us something about yourself. Gave a prepared answer covering my introduction, work experience, education, background, and hobbies. L1:  What is Aligarh (your hometown) famous for? Ma’am, Aligarh is primarily famous for two things: The Aligarh Muslim University, established by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan in 1875. The lock industry—70% of locks used in India are manufactured in Aligarh. M1:  Why did the lock industry develop in Aligarh? (I had researched this thoroughly after being unable to answer it in my IIFT interview.)Told them about the British establishing a mail carriage manufacturing workshop in 1852 and how the availability of skilled labor led to the growth of the lock industry. Over 150 years, it became a ₹4000 crore industry. M2:  What do you do at Maruti Suzuki? Sir, I work on the development of IPC (Instrument Panel Cluster) software for upcoming models. L1:  The what? Ma’am, it’s the speedometer software. The speedometer is technically known as the Instrument Panel Cluster (IPC). M1:  But what is there to develop in a speedometer? Isn’t it the same across all cars? No, sir. A lot of development efforts go into the speedometer. It acts as the car’s monitor—any new feature, system failure, or safety/warning alert needs to be displayed there. My team works on designing signals, byte size, telltale indicators, and functionalities. M2:   (Abruptly)  What happened in your IIM Calcutta interview? (I wasn’t sure if this was a calculated guess or if he knew my result.)(A bit perplexed, but answered honestly.)Sir, I got extremely nervous before the interview, and it reflected in my performance. I wasn’t able to portray my best self. Given IIM Calcutta’s highly competitive selection ratio, even small mistakes have large repercussions. M2:  Are you nervous here as well? A little bit, sir. But I think that’s natural. M2:  Why? Sir, no matter how much I prepared for this interview, the thought of its importance still makes me slightly nervous. L1:  Tell us about your hobbies again. Ma’am, I enjoy reading books, graphic designing, and solving Rubik’s cubes. L1:  What genre do you prefer? What book are you currently reading? Why? I started with fiction, but now I prefer historical and non-fiction books. Currently reading A Little History of the World by Ernst Gombrich because I love learning about world history and different cultures. M1:  Tell me something about Ancient Greece. Told about Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, the birth of democracy, and the Olympics. M1:  What about Ancient India? Told about the Indus Valley Civilization and its unique urban planning. M2:  If you had four hours to waste, what would you do? Sir, I would read something. M2:  That’s a hobby. I’m asking how you would waste  time. Sir, I would travel and explore nearby places. M2:  That’s again a hobby. Imagine you were supposed to meet someone at Cyber Hub, but they didn’t show up. What would you do? Sir, I would enjoy a good meal by myself and then explore Cyber Hub. M2:   (A bit frustrated)  Why are you such a boring person? You can’t even waste four hours! Waste them! Sir, but this is wasting time. Even if I read a bad book or wander around aimlessly, I am still wasting time. What is "wasting time" for one person might be a hobby for another. Closing Remarks L1:  That’s it. We are done. Thank you, Tushar. You can leave now. Thank you, ma’am. Verdict: Converted! 🎉

Faculty of Management Studies (FMS), Delhi, is one of India’s premier business schools, renowned for its academic excellence, industry-oriented curriculum, and exceptional return on investment. Established in 1954 under the University of Delhi, FMS offers flagship MBA, Executive MBA, and doctoral programs. Known as the "Red Building of Dreams," it boasts a legacy of producing top corporate leaders and entrepreneurs. With a rigorous selection process, a dynamic peer group, and strong corporate connections, FMS provides a transformative learning experience that blends theoretical knowledge with real-world applications. ADVERTISEMENT Candidate Profile: Venue:  FMS Delhi Date:  16th April 2019 Group Discussion (GD) Topic:   Can India Dream to Host the Olympics? Experience: There were 8 candidates in the panel, but only 3–4 of us spoke for the entire duration. I spoke about: Infrastructure and its maintenance Commonwealth Games experience The need to develop a strong sports team The economic impact of an influx of visitors The importance of developing interest and talent in various sports Why India should currently focus on initiatives like Khelo India I spoke for around 4 minutes out of 9 but also gave others the chance to speak. It was a healthy discussion, not a fish market. Personal Interview (PI) Panel Composition: P1:  Female P2:  Male P3:  Male (Initially present but walked out as soon as I entered) P2:  Moinack, tell us about yourself. Told my well-prepared answer but added some spontaneous elements to make it sound natural. P1:  Both your parents are hotel management graduates. You must have a lot of exotic food at home! (Smiled and agreed.)  Yes, ma’am. I also enjoy cooking myself. P1:  So, Moinack, your extempore topic is "My Favorite Dish."(Thanked my stars! My friends had got abstract topics like "Core" and "Marketing Techniques in Elections.") Extempore Spoke comfortably about my favorite dish, how it's made, and its special ingredients. Mentioned that it contains poppy seeds (posto). The panelist stopped me after a minute. Core Interview (P3 re-entered the room at this point.) P2:  Isn't poppy seed derived from a drug? Are there any side effects? Explained that industrially processed poppy seeds have no such effects. However, if consumed directly from the fields, they can cause hallucinations or drowsiness. P2:  Why the shift to finance? What was the starting point? Spoke about my association with a finance professor at VIT Vellore, where we had five compulsory management subjects. Mentioned my interest in stock investing and the influence of Benjamin Graham. P2:  Tell me the three most important financial ratios, according to you. 1. Return on Equity (ROE) and the 5-step DuPont Analysis2. Debt Service Coverage Ratio (DSCR) to assess a company’s solvency3. Defensive Interval Ratio (since I was working in the leather goods sector at the time, this was relevant) Closing Remarks P2:  Okay, Moinack, we are done. (I was shocked for a couple of seconds—other candidates had much longer interviews! My PI lasted only 6 minutes, and P3 didn’t ask me a single question!) As I was about to leave, P1 asked about my calls and results.  I told them and then thanked the panel. (I was nervous about the short interview and a small goof-up in the extempore, but everything changed on April 24th at 11:30 PM!) Verdict:   Converted in First List! 🎉

To prove that XOR (⊕) is the complement of XNOR (⊙), we will construct a truth table for both operations. A B A ⊕ B (XOR) A ⊙ B (XNOR) 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 From the table, we see that: ADVERTISEMENT When 𝐴⊕𝐵=0 then 𝐴⊙𝐵=1 When 𝐴⊕𝐵=1 then 𝐴⊙𝐵=0 ​ Thus, XOR and XNOR are complements of each other. ✅

The question is detailed and given as follows: A two-word instruction to perform the load operation is stored in memory at an address 200 as represented in the memory map given below. The address field of the instruction is stored at address 201. The mode field specifies an addressing mode. R1 is the general-purpose register, which has the value of 400. Base register contains the value 100. Determine the effective address and the operand to be loaded for the following address modes: (i) Direct (ii) Immediate (iii) Indirect (iv) Relative (v) Base register Addressing (vi) Register indirect address The answer is given below. ADVERTISEMENT Direct Addressing Mode The address field contains 500  (stored at location 201). The effective address (EA) = 500. The operand at memory location 500 is 1100  (as seen in the memory map). Effective Address: 500 Operand Loaded: 1100 Immediate Addressing Mode The address field itself is used as the operand. The operand is 500  (value stored at address 201). Effective Address: Not applicable Operand Loaded: 500 Indirect Addressing Mode The address field contains 500 (stored at 201), which acts as a pointer. The memory at location 500 contains 1100 , which is the effective address. The operand at location 1100  is 1700 . Effective Address: 1100 Operand Loaded: 1700 Relative Addressing Mode The address field (500) is interpreted relative to the instruction location (200). Effective Address = PC (Program Counter) + Address Field EA = 200 + 500 = 700 The operand at memory location 700  is not explicitly provided in the memory map. Effective Address: 700 Operand Loaded: Unknown (not given in the memory map) Base Register Addressing Mode The effective address is calculated using the Base Register  value. EA = Base Register + Address Field EA = 100 + 500 = 600 The operand at memory location 600  is 1200 . Effective Address: 600 Operand Loaded: 1200 Register Indirect Addressing Mode The value in register R1  is used as the effective address. R1 = 400. The operand at memory location 400  is 1000 . Effective Address: 400 Operand Loaded: 1000

The question is as follows: What is DMA? Briefly explain following with respect to DMA: (i) Bus request (ii) Bus Grant (iii) Burst transfer (iv) Cycle Stealing Direct Memory Access (DMA) is a method used in computer systems to transfer data between memory and peripherals (such as hard disks, network cards, or sound cards) without the continuous involvement of the CPU. Instead of relying on the CPU for every data transfer operation, a separate DMA controller (DMAC) handles the process, significantly improving system efficiency and performance. Working of DMA: The CPU initiates the DMA transfer by providing necessary details to the DMA controller, such as memory addresses, data size, and transfer direction. The DMA controller requests control of the system bus from the CPU. Once the CPU grants control, the DMA controller performs the data transfer directly between the peripheral and memory. After completing the transfer, the DMA controller notifies the CPU through an interrupt. ADVERTISEMENT 1. Bus Request (BR) The bus request  is a signal sent by the DMA controller to the CPU to request control over the system bus. The system bus consists of three main components: Address Bus  (to specify memory locations) Data Bus  (to transfer actual data) Control Bus  (to manage signals for data transfer) When the DMA controller needs to read/write data, it sends this request, asking the CPU to release control of the bus. The CPU either grants or denies this request based on its current operations. Example: When a sound card needs to stream audio data from memory, the DMA controller requests the bus to fetch the required data. 2. Bus Grant (BG) The bus grant  is a signal sent by the CPU to the DMA controller, indicating that the system bus has been released and the DMA controller can now take control. This ensures that only one device is using the bus at a time, preventing data corruption and conflicts. Process: DMA controller requests the bus (Bus Request - BR). The CPU checks whether it can release the bus (if it's not executing critical tasks). If possible, the CPU suspends its operations and sends a Bus Grant (BG)  signal. The DMA controller takes over the bus and performs the data transfer. Example: If a network card needs to transfer a large file to memory, the CPU grants the bus to DMA so that data can be written without CPU intervention. 3. Burst Transfer In burst mode , the DMA controller transfers an entire block of data (multiple bytes) in a single, uninterrupted operation. During this time, the CPU is completely halted  as the DMA controller has full control of the system bus. Once the data transfer is complete, the bus is returned to the CPU. Advantages: ✔ Faster data transfer since multiple bytes are moved at once. ✔ Suitable for high-speed peripherals like disk drives or graphics cards. Disadvantages: ❌ CPU remains idle during the transfer, leading to reduced processing efficiency. Example: A hard drive transferring a large file (e.g., 100 MB) to RAM using DMA in burst mode will block the CPU until the transfer is completed. 4. Cycle Stealing In cycle stealing mode , the DMA controller transfers data one byte or word at a time  instead of transferring a full block. The CPU and DMA share the system bus by alternating control—DMA takes control for a few cycles, transfers a small amount of data, then returns the bus to the CPU. This allows the CPU to continue executing other instructions while DMA operates in the background. Advantages: ✔ Prevents CPU from being completely blocked. ✔ Suitable for real-time applications where CPU tasks should not be interrupted for too long. Disadvantages: ❌ Slower data transfer compared to burst mode since only small chunks of data are transferred at a time. Example: In video streaming applications, DMA might use cycle stealing to continuously fetch small frames of video data from memory without causing noticeable delays in other system processes.